|
|
|
| A Review of Digital Divide Research Abroad |
| Xu Fang, Ma Li |
| School of Social Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123 |
|
|
|
|
Abstract In recent years, digital divide research has attracted extensive attention from scholars worldwide. The purpose of this paper is to provide a reference for Chinese scholars to understand the status quo of foreign research on digital divide and to carry out further systematic research in this field. First, this paper systematically summarizes the concept, the types of digital divide, and the problem domains of digital divide research. These domains include its influencing factors, measurement indexes, evaluation models, measures to bridge the gap, and development trends by means of synthesis, induction, and comparison. Then, the contemporary context of digital divide research abroad is reviewed. The review reveals that a relatively systematic theoretical system has been formed and the research methods in digital divide research are mainly quantitative research, which implies qualitative research in this field needs to be strengthened. Additionally, relevant research on the third digital divide is still in the preliminary stage, and the classification of digital divide and the measures to bridge the digital divide require further study. Last, the review indicates that the development trend of digital divide research is digital inclusion.
|
|
Received: 13 November 2019
|
|
|
|
1 Yu L. Understanding information inequality: Making sense of the literature of the information and digital divides[J]. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 2006, 38(4): 229-252.
2 Tichenor P J, Donohue G A, Olien C N. Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge[J]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 1970, 34(2): 159-170.
3 Pearce K E, Rice R E. Digital divides from access to activities: Comparing mobile and personal computer Internet users[J]. Journal of Communication, 2013, 63(4): 721-744.
4 van Dijk J A G M. Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings[J]. Poetics, 2006, 34(4-5): 221-235.
5 Ferro E, Helbig N C, Gil-Garcia J R. The role of IT literacy in defining digital divide policy needs[J]. Government Information Quarterly, 2011, 28(1): 3-10.
6 van Deursen A J A M, van Dijk J A G M. Internet skill levels increase, but gaps widen: A longitudinal cross-sectional analysis (2010-2013) among the Dutch population[J]. Information, Communication & Society, 2015, 18(7): 782-797.
7 Weber D M, Kauffman R J. What drives global ICT adoption? Analysis and research directions[J]. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 2011,10(6): 683-701.
8 ITU2014. Measuring the information society[R/OL]. [2019-10-11]. http://doi.org/10.3359/oz0303157.
9 Selwyn N, Facer K. Beyond the digital divide: Rethinking digital inclusion for the 21st century[EB/OL]. [2019-10-11]. http://futurelab.org.uk/openingeducation/.
10 UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). Measuring the impacts of information and communication technology for development[R/OL]. [2019-10-11]. http://unctad.org/en/docs/dtlstict2011d1_en.pdf.
11 Brixiova Z, Li W, Yousef T. Skill shortages and labor market outcomes in Central Europe[J]. Economic Systems, 2009, 33(1): 45-59.
12 Lee H, Park N, Hwang Y. A new dimension of the digital divide: Exploring the relationship between broadband connection, smartphone use and communication competence[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2015, 32(1): 45-56.
13 Noh Y. A comparative study of public libraries’ contribution to digital inclusion in Korea and the United States[J]. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 2016, 51(1): 59-77.
14 Billon M, Marco R, Lera-Lopez F. Disparities in ICT adoption: A multidimensional approach to study the cross-country digital divide[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2009, 33(10-11): 596-610.
15 闫慧, 孙立立. 1989年以来国内外数字鸿沟研究回顾: 内涵、表现维度及影响因素综述[J]. 中国图书馆学报, 2012, 38(5): 82-94.
16 洪海娟, 万跃华. 数字鸿沟研究演进路径与前沿热点的知识图谱分析[J]. 情报科学, 2014, 32(4): 54-58.
17 杨海亚. 国内图书情报界信息不平等研究观点评述[J]. 图书馆学刊, 2014, 36(10): 139-143.
18 王君, 张巍巍, 郏江杰. 国内外近5年信息不平等研究进展[J]. 图书馆学研究, 2019(17): 10-20.
19 于良芝, 周文杰. 信息穷人与信息富人: 个人层次的信息不平等测度述评[J]. 图书与情报, 2015(1): 53-60, 76.
20 Hsieh J, Rai A, Keil M. Understanding digital inequality: Comparing continued use behavioral models of the socio-economically advantaged and disadvantaged[J]. MIS Quarterly, 2008, 32(1): 97-126.
21 Dimaggio P, Hargittai E, Celeste C, et al. From unequal access to differentiated use: A literature review and agenda for research on digital inequality[J]. Social Inequality, 2001: 355-400.
22 Riggins F J, Dewan S. The digital divide: Current and future research directions[J]. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 2005, 6(12): 298-337.
23 Robles J M, Torres-Albero C, de Marco S. Spanish e-government and the third digital divide: A sociological view[J]. Journal of US-China Public Administration, 2011, 8(4): 401-412.
24 Wei K K, Teo H H, Chan H C, et al. Conceptualizing and testing a social cognitive model of the digital divide[J]. Information Systems Research, 2011, 22(1): 170-187.
25 van Deursen A J A M, Courtois C, van Dijk J A G M. Internet skills, sources of support, and benefiting from Internet use[J]. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 2014, 30(4): 278-290.
26 OECD. Understanding the digital divide[R/OL]. [2019-10-13]. http://www.oecd.org/digital/ieconomy/1888451.pdf.
27 International Telecommunications Union (ITU). Measuring the information society report[R/OL]. [2019-10-13]. https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/Documents/Events-/2016/Mar-ICTStats/Presentations/Session%201a.%20MIS-Report-2015%20Es-pie.pdf.
28 Shirazi F. The emancipatory role of information and communication technology: A case study of Internet content filtering within Iran[J]. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 2010, 8(1): 57-84.
29 Mari?n I, Prodnik J A. Digital inclusion and user (dis)empowerment: A critical perspective[J]. Info, 2014, 16(6): 35-47.
30 Zhao F, Collier A, Deng H P. A multidimensional and integrative approach to study global digital divide and e-government development[J]. Information Technology & People, 2014, 27(1): 38-62.
31 Vicente Cuervo M R, López Menéndez A J. A multivariate framework for the analysis of the digital divide: Evidence for the European Union-15[J]. Information & Management, 2006, 43(6): 756-766.
32 Cruz-Jesus F, Oliveira T, Bacao F. Digital divide across the European Union[J]. Information & Management, 2012, 49(6): 278-291.
33 Dewan S, Ganley D, Kraemer K L. Complementarities in the diffusion of personal computers and the Internet: Implications for the global digital divide[J]. Information Systems Research, 2010, 21(4): 925-940.
34 Livingstone S, Dhanes L, Hasebrink U. Researching young people and the changing media environment[M]// Children and Their Changing Media Environment: A European Comparative Study. Mahwah & London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001: 31-51.
35 Kauffman R J, Riggins F J. Information and communication technology and the sustainability of microfinance[J]. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 2012, 11(5): 450-468.
36 Steinmueller W E. ICTs and the possibilities for leapfrogging by developing countries[J]. International Labour Review, 2001, 140(2): 193-210.
37 Napoli P M, Obar J A. Mobile leapfrogging and digital divide policy: Assessing the limitations of mobile Internet access[J]. SSRN Electronic Journal, 2013: Paper No. 2263800.
38 National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). Falling through the net: A survey of the “Have Nots” in rural and urban America[R/OL]. [2019-10-15]. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED399126.pdf.
39 United States Department of Commerce. Falling through the Net II: New data on the digital divide[J]. National Telecommunications & Information Administration, 1998, 25(2): 265-304.
40 Mcconnaughey J, Everette D, Reynolds T, et al. Falling through the net: Defining the digital divide[R/OL]. [2019-10-15]. http://www.ntia.doc.gov/legacy/ntiahome/fttn99/-contents.html.
41 Newman L, Browne-Yung K, Raghavendra P, et al. Applying a critical approach to investigate barriers to digital inclusion and online social networking among young people with disabilities[J]. Information Systems Journal, 2017, 27(5): 559-588.
42 Brandtz?g P B, Heim J, Karahasanovi? A. Understanding the new digital divide—A typology of Internet users in Europe[J]. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 2011, 69(3): 123-138.
43 Yu B Y, Ndumu A, Liu J Q, et al. E-inclusion or digital divide: An integrated model of digital inequality[C]// Proceedings of the 79th ASIS&T Annual Meeting: Creating Knowledge, Enhancing Lives through Information & Technology. Silver Springs: American Society for Information Science, 2016: Article No. 99.
44 Mahler S J. Transnational relationships: The struggle to communicate across borders[J]. Identities, 2001, 7(4): 583-619.
45 Mamattah S. Migration and transnationalism: The complete picture? A case study of Russians living in Scotland[J]. Identity and Marginality, 2006, 6(2): 1-22.
46 Quibria M G, Ahmed S N, Tschang T, et al. Digital divide: Determinants and policies with special reference to Asia[J]. Journal of Asian Economics, 2003, 13(6): 811-825.
47 Büchi M, Just N, Latzer M. Modeling the second-level digital divide: A five-country study of social differences in internet use[J]. New Media & Society, 2016, 18(11): 2703-2722.
48 Haight M, Quan-Haase A, Corbett B A. Revisiting the digital divide in Canada: The impact of demographic factors on access to the Internet, level of online activity, and social networking site usage[J]. Information, Communication & Society, 2014, 17(4): 503-519.
49 Helsper E J. Gendered Internet use across generations and life stages[J]. Communication Research, 2010, 37(3): 352-374.
50 Korupp S E, Szydlik M. Causes and trends of the digital divide[J]. European Sociological Review, 2005, 21(4): 409-422.
51 Shirazi F, Ngwenyama O, Morawczynski O. ICT expansion and the digital divide in democratic freedoms: An analysis of the impact of ICT expansion, education and ICT filtering on democracy[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2010, 27(1): 21-31.
52 Cruz-Jesus F, Vicente M R, Bacao F, et al. The education-related digital divide: An analysis for the EU-28[J]. Computers in Human Behavior, 2016, 56: 72-82.
53 Vicente M R, López A J. Assessing the regional digital divide across the European Union-27[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2011, 35(3): 220-237.
54 Unwin T, de Bastion G. Digital divide[M]// International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2009: 191-197.
55 Cruz-Jesus F, Oliveira T, Bacao F. The global digital divide: Evidence and drivers[J]. Journal of Global Information Management, 2018, 26(2): 1-26.
56 Srinuan C, Srinuan P, Bohlin E. An analysis of mobile Internet access in Thailand: Implications for bridging the digital divide[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2012, 29(3): 254-262.
57 Bohlin E, Rohman I K. An assessment of mobile broadband access in Indonesia: A demand or supply problem?[J]. Internetworking Indonesia Journal, 2011, 3(2): 15-22.
58 Puspitasari L, Ishii K. Digital divides and mobile Internet in Indonesia: Impact of smartphones[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2016, 33(2): 472-483.
59 Niehaves B, Plattfaut R. Internet adoption by the elderly: Employing IS technology acceptance theories for understanding the age-related digital divide[J]. European Journal of Information Systems, 2014, 23(6): 708-726.
60 Cerno L, Amaral T P. Demand for Internet access and use in Spain[M]// Governance of Communication Networks. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag HD, 2006: 333-353.
61 Demoussis M, Giannakopoulos N. Facets of the digital divide in Europe: Determination and extent of Internet use[J]. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 2006, 15(3): 235-246.
62 Naito S, Hausman B. Information and communications in Japan[EB/OL]. [2019-10-15]. https://www.un.org/maintenance/.
63 Vik S. Factors associated with household Internet use in Canada, 1998-2000[EB/OL]. [2019-10-15]. http://agris.fao.org/openagris/search.do?recordID=US2016221566.
64 Czaja S J, Lee C C. The impact of aging on access to technology[J]. Universal Access in the Information Society, 2007, 5(4): 341-349.
65 Fozard J L, Gordon-Salant S. Changes in vision and hearing with aging[EB/OL]. [2019-10-15]. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-18327-010.
66 Prensky M. Digital natives, digital immigrants part 1[J]. On the Horizon, 2001, 9(5): 1-6.
67 Mumporeze N, Prieler M. Gender digital divide in Rwanda: A qualitative analysis of socioeconomic factors[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2017, 34(7): 1285-1293.
68 Yücel Y, R?zvanog?lu K. Battling gender stereotypes: A user study of a code-learning game, “Code Combat,” with middle school children[J]. Computers in Human Behavior, 2019, 99: 352-365.
69 Wasserman I M, Richmond-Abbott M. Gender and the Internet: Causes of variation in access, level, and scope of use[J]. Social Science Quarterly, 2005, 86(1): 252-270.
70 Antonio A, Tuffley D. The gender digital divide in developing countries[J]. Future Internet, 2014, 6(4): 673-687.
71 Chinn M D, Fairlie R W. The determinants of the global digital divide: A cross-country analysis of computer and Internet penetration[J]. Oxford Economic Papers, 2006, 59(1): 16-44.
72 Kiiski S, Pohjola M. Cross-country diffusion of the Internet[J]. Information Economics and Policy, 2002, 14(2): 297-310.
73 Wilson K R, Wallin J S, Reiser C. Social stratification and the digital divide[J]. Social Science Computer Review, 2003, 21(2): 133-143.
74 Zhong Z J. From access to usage: The divide of self-reported digital skills among adolescents[J]. Computers & Education, 2011, 56(3): 736-746.
75 Billón M, Ezcurra R, Lera-López F. The spatial distribution of the Internet in the European Union: Does geographical proximity matter?[J]. European Planning Studies, 2008, 16(1): 119-142.
76 Billón M, Ezcurra R, Lera-López F. Spatial effects in website adoption by firms in European regions[J]. Growth and Change, 2009, 40(1): 54-84.
77 Hill R F. Still digitally divided? An assessment of historically black college and university library web sites[J]. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 2012, 38(1): 6-12.
78 Pick J B, Nishida T. Digital divides in the world and its regions: A spatial and multivariate analysis of technological utilization[J]. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 2015, 91: 1-17.
79 Pick J B, Sarkar A, Johnson J. United States digital divide: State level analysis of spatial clustering and multivariate determinants of ICT utilization[J]. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 2015, 49: 16-32.
80 Shelton T, Poorthuis A, Zook M. Social media and the city: Rethinking urban socio-spatial inequality using user-generated geographic information[J]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 2015, 142: 198-211.
81 ITU-International Telecommunication Union. Partnership core list of ICT indicators, as of March 2016[EB/OL]. [2019-10-18]. http://www.itu.int/en/ITU/Statistics/Documents/-coreindicators/Core-List-of-Indicators_March2016.pdf.
82 World Economic Forum 2017. Shaping the future of digital economy and society[R/OL]. [2019-10-18]. https://www.weforum.org/system-initiatives/the-digital-economy-and-society.
83 European Commission. Digital economy and society index (DESI) 2017[R/OL]. [2019-10-18]. https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/digital-economy-and-society-index-desi-2017.
84 Vehovar V, Sicherl P, Hüsing T, et al. Methodological challenges of digital divide measurements[J]. The Information Society, 2006, 22(5): 279-290.
85 Mason S M, Hacker K L. Applying communication theory to digital divide research[J]. IT&Society, 2003, 1(5): 40-55.
86 Zoroja J. Internet, e-commerce and e-government: Measuring the gap between European developed and post-communist countries[J]. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems, 2011, 9(2): 119-133.
87 Ruiz-Rodríguez F, Lucendo-Monedero A L, González-Rela?o R. Measurement and characterization of the digital divide of Spanish regions at enterprise level. A comparative analysis with the European context[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2018, 42(3): 187-211.
88 Zhang X Q. Income disparity and digital divide: The Internet Consumption Model and cross-country empirical research[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2013, 37(6-7): 515-529.
89 Magsamen-Conrad K, Upadhyaya S, Joa C Y, et al. Bridging the divide: Using UTAUT to predict multigenerational tablet adoption practices[J]. Computers in Human Behavior, 2015, 50: 186-196.
90 Lyvers M, Karantonis J, Edwards M S, et al. Traits associated with Internet addiction in young adults: Potential risk factors[J]. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 2016, 3: 56-60.
91 Aparicio M, Bacao F, Oliveira T. Grit in the path to e-learning success[J]. Computers in Human Behavior, 2017, 66: 388-399.
92 Ebbers W E, Jansen M G M, van Deursen A J A M. Impact of the digital divide on e-government: Expanding from channel choice to channel usage[J]. Government Information Quarterly, 2016, 33(4): 685-692.
93 Gulati G J J, Williams C B, Yates D J. Predictors of on-line services and e-participation: A cross-national comparison[J]. Government Information Quarterly, 2014, 31(4): 526-533.
94 Hung S Y, Chang C M, Kuo S R. User acceptance of mobile e-government services: An empirical study[J]. Government Information Quarterly, 2013, 30(1): 33-44.
95 Okunola O M, Rowley J, Johnson F. The multi-dimensional digital divide: Perspectives from an e-government portal in Nigeria[J]. Government Information Quarterly, 2017, 34(2): 329-339.
96 Tam C, Oliveira T. Understanding mobile banking individual performance: The DeLone & McLean model and the moderating effects of individual culture[J]. Internet Research, 2017, 27(3): 538-562.
97 Hargittai E, Hsieh Y L P. Predictors and consequences of differentiated practices on social network sites[J]. Information, Communication & Society, 2010, 13(4): 515-536.
98 ? ilan ? A, Bolat B A, Co?kun E. Analyzing digital divide within and between member and candidate countries of European Union[J]. Government Information Quarterly, 2009, 26(1): 98-105.
99 Bach M P, Zoroja J, Vuk?i? V B. Determinants of firms’ digital divide: A review of recent research[J]. Procedia Technology, 2013, 9: 120-128.
100 Lucendo-Monedero A L, Ruiz-Rodríguez F, González-Rela?o R. Measuring the digital divide at regional level. A spatial analysis of the inequalities in digital development of households and individuals in Europe[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2019, 41: 197-217.
101 Hilbert M. The end justifies the definition: The manifold outlooks on the digital divide and their practical usefulness for policy-making[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2011, 35(8): 715-736.
102 Hill R J, Fishbein M, Ajzen I. Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research[J]. Contemporary Sociology, 1977, 6(2): 244.
103 Davis F D. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[J]. MIS Quarterly, 1989, 13(3): 319-340.
104 Venkatesh V, Morris M G, Davis G B, et al. User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[J]. MIS Quarterly, 2003, 27(3): 425-478.
105 Davis F D, Bagozzi R P, Warshaw P R. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to use computers in the Workplace1[J]. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1992, 22(14): 1111-1132.
106 Thompson R L, Higgins C A, Howell J M. Personal computing: Toward a conceptual model of utilization[J]. MIS Quarterly, 1991, 15(1): 125-143.
107 Rogers E M. Diffusion of innovations[M]. 4th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.
108 Taylor S, Todd P. Assessing IT usage: The role of prior experience[J]. MIS Quarterly, 1995, 19(4): 561-570.
109 Venkatesh V, Thong J Y L, Xu X. Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: Extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology[J]. MIS Quarterly, 2012, 36(1): 157-178.
110 Goncalves G, Oliveira T, Cruz-Jesus F. Understanding individual-level digital divide: Evidence of an African country[J]. Computers in Human Behavior, 2018, 87: 276-291.
111 Kraemer K L, Ganley D, Dewan S. Across the digital divide: A cross-country multi-technology analysis of the determinants of IT penetration[J]. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 2005, 6(12): 409-432.
112 Trkman P, Jerman-Blazic B, Turk T. Factors of broadband development and the design of a strategic policy framework[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2008, 32(2): 101-115.
113 Vicente M R, López A J. What drives broadband diffusion? Evidence from Eastern Europe[J]. Applied Economics Letters, 2010, 17(1): 51-54.
114 ? ilan ? A, ?zdemir M. Measuring domestic digital divide by using latent class analysis: A case study of Turkey[J]. Istanbul University Journal of the School of Business, 2013, 42(2): 219-234.
115 Dudek H. Determinants of access to the Internet in households Probit model analysis[J]. Polish Association for Knowledge Management, 2007, 11: 51-56.
116 Song Z Y, Wang C, Bergmann L. China’s prefectural digital divide: Spatial analysis and multivariate determinants of ICT diffusion[J]. International Journal of Information Management, 2020, 52(6): 102072.
117 Zhang X Q. Frugal innovation and the digital divide: Developing an extended model of the diffusion of innovations[J]. International Journal of Innovation Studies, 2018, 2(2): 53-64.
118 van Dijk J A G M. A framework for digital divide research[J/OL]. The Electronic Journal of Communication, 2002, 12(1), http://www.cios.org/EJCPUBLIC/012/1/01211.html.
119 van Dijk J A G M. The deepening divide: Inequality in the information society[J]. Mass Communication & Society, 2005, 11(2): 221-234.
120 闫慧, 闫希敏. 农民数字化贫困自我归因分析及启示——来自皖甘津的田野调查[J]. 中国图书馆学报, 2014, 40(5): 68-81.
121 赵安琪, 付少雄. 欧盟数字化贫困治理战略、实践及启示[J]. 图书与情报, 2019(2): 1-10.
122 闫慧, 张鑫灿, 殷宪斌. 数字包容研究进展: 内涵、影响因素与公共政策[J]. 图书与情报, 2018(3): 80-89.
123 European Union. The Europe 2020 strategy[EB/OL]. [2018-10-09]. https://europa.eu/youth/es/article/50/6895_en.
124 ALA Office of Technology Policy. U.S. Public Libraries and the Broadband Technology Opportunities Program (BTOP)[R]. Chicago & Washington, DC: American Library Association, 2013, 2.
125 Gunasekaran V, Harmantzis F C. Emerging wireless technologies for developing countries[J]. Technology in Society, 2007, 29(1): 23-42.
126 Srinuan C, Srinuan P, Bohlin E. An analysis of mobile Internet access in Thailand: Implications for bridging the digital divide[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2012, 29(3): 254-262.
127 Rao S S. Bridging digital divide: Efforts in India[J]. Telematics and Informatics, 2005, 22(4): 361-375.
128 Szeles M R. New insights from a multilevel approach to the regional digital divide in the European Union[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2018, 42(6): 452-463.
129 eEurope Advisory Group. e-Inclusion: New challenges and policy recommendations[EB/OL]. [2019-10-25]. http://ec.europa.eu/ information_society/eeurope/2005/doc/all_about/kaplan_report_ einclusion_final_version.pdf.
130 Yu B Y, Ndumu A, Mon L M, et al. E-inclusion or digital divide: An integrated model of digital inequality[J]. Journal of Documentation, 2018, 74(3): 552-574.
131 Lee Y, Jeon M. Kang J. Strategies and implications for the social integration of the digital age[J]. IT&Society, 2010, 20: 1-29.
132 WebJunction. What is digital inclusion?[EB/OL]. [2019-10-25]. http://www.webjunction.org/explore-topics/digital-inclusion.html.
133 Parsons C, Hick S. Moving from digital divide to digital inclusion[J]. Currents: New Scholarship in the Human Services, 2008, 7(2): 1-16.
134 Sciadas G. International Benchmarking for the Information Society[R/OL]. [2019-10-28]. http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/digitalbridges/docs/background/BDB-intl-indices.pdf.
135 Bélanger F, Carter L. The impact of the digital divide on e-government use[J]. Communications of the ACM, 2009, 52(4): 132-135. |
|
|
|
